On December 28, 1929, the French Chamber of Deputies passed a resolution calling for an "Exposition of Decorative Arts and Modern Industry," in 1936, to be placed under the direction of the Minister of Commerce. The Universal Exhibition of 1937, officially the International Exhibition of "Arts and Techniques Applied to Modern Life", which was held in Paris from May 25 to November 25, 1937, was the first Exhibition organized in France under the rules of the Convention of Paris of 1928 on International Exhibitions. And what is the nature of this contribution? The graceful lines of light seemed a perfect realization of the belief that industry, too, had its own intrinsic beauty. inc. 22% sales tax. Facing the heroically posed Russian workingman and peasant woman brandishing hammer and sickle, the German eagle, its talons clutching a wreath encircling a huge swastika, disdainfully turned its head and fanned out its wings. It was to broadcast to the world that a new and powerful Germany had a restored sense of national pride. Painters and sculptors displayed their work at their own annual and biennial salons, where patrons and purchasers entered the "higher" world of aesthetic beauty, far from clanking machinery. "13 Jacques Carlu, Louis-Hippolyte Boileau, and Léon Azéma were awarded the commission to rebuild the new Chaillot Palace along the same lines as the colonnade of the old Trocadero. From there visitors could visit the Colonial Exhibits by Mario Sironi and the Gallery of Tourism before enjoying a plate of real spaghetti on the restaurant terrace. The courtyard garden was designed a respite from the exhibits with a symphony of green grass and green-glazed tiles set against red flowers and burgundy porphyry. Four distinguished French architects – Alfred Audoul, Eric Bagge, Jack Gérodias and René Hartwig – designed a structure in the art deco mode. Though the decorative arts would not be the major focus of the new exposition, the exposition planners believed that the arts themselves should take an active part in the "struggle against unemployment." The most telling sign that art had declined into servitude was the manner in which artisanship was exalted over art, and the condescending admiration bestowed upon the artisans of colonial cultures by their rulers. The opening date was moved up to 1937, and a commission set to work in earnest on the grand schemes and finer details. The Palais de Chaillot is perhaps the best known monument. "20 What a far cry from the heroic call for national unity in the first national expositions. The 1937 Exposition Internationale was designed in part to effect a unification between these forms of endeavor. "Tourism, the hotel industry, and spa therapy. Labbé was persuaded to continue, and the work proceeded. Applied ornament might dress up the perceived graceless functionality of the machine; and machinery might serve as a subordinate subject for art (the first painting with a motorcar appeared in the frescoes at the 1900 exposition). 1937 – Dallas, Texas, USA – Greater Texas and Pan American Exposition (1937) 1937 – Düsseldorf, Tyskland – Reichsausstellung Schaffendes Volk (1937) 1937 – Miami, Florida, USA – Pan American Fair (1937) 1937 – Paris, Frankrig – Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne Vera Mukhina designed the large figurative sculpture on the pavilion. After all, why mention them, unless one also mentioned the designers of cowcatchers or pull-down compartment beds? Auch sollte, in einer Zeit wachsender Kriegsgefahr, die Bedeutung des Friedens betont werden. There was fine art to be seen at the exposition, of course – in the retrospective gallery. "Paris Exposition," Magazine of Art, May, 1937. At night, lights shined through the opaque plastic, giving a wonderful sense of airiness to the whole. Des hommes exotiques dans les expositions universelles et internationales (1851-1937), in: Exhibitions. The United States pavilion, a towering skyscraper designed by chief architect Paul Weiner, showcased the Roosevelt's New Deal.21 The Departments of Treasury, Commerce, Interior and Labor made the case that America was successfully combating the Depression through an unprecedented series of public works funded by the federal government. [9], Britain had not been expecting such a competitive exposition, and its planned budget was only a small fraction of Germany's. The pavilion's interior carried out similar motifs: strict stylistic geometry, relieved by colorful, semi-abstract murals depicting the structure and power of rail transport. Beneath the imported totem poles, between the fronds of the newly-planted banana trees, palms and cacti, the colonial artisans weaved fabrics and sang their songs on the Parisian island of outre mer. Because of the Great Depression – and the trend among painters and sculptors towards "unpopular" abstract art – the number of buyers to support the arts had declined sharply. Culture, Capital and Representation. Detailed shots of the Soviet Pavillion at the 1937 Exposition internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie moderne in Paris. This utilitarian tendency, always present in the philosophy of the Parisian expositions, is now carried to its logical extreme. When the gates to the exposition closed in November of 1937, they closed on the final Ritual of Peace and Progress in the queen city of expositions. As always with Parisian expositions, the work proceeded slowly, and the exposition opening time was pushed back again and again. In spite of all my appeals to their honor and power, they still go on strike.7, Medal honoring Edmond Labbé for his work as chief commissioner for the exposition. Gillet, L. "Coup d'oeil sur l'exposition," Revue des deux mondes, May 15, 1937. In the City of Light, the lamps were extinguished. 11. At the earlier French national fairs held in the first decades of the 19th century, the artists refused to lower themselves by appearing in the same expositions as the "lower" mechanical arts. I went there nearly every day with my precious pass, given by the Prefecture, in hand. Bas reliefs showed airlines tying together Europe (with France leading the way), the Americans, Indochina and Africa. What the Isle des Cygnes was to France, the Regional Center, located in a remote corner of the Esplanade des Invalides, was to Paris. Motto war, dass Kunst und Technik sowie das Nützliche und das Schöne, einander jeweils nicht widersprechen, sondern ergänzen. The 1937 Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (‘International Exposition of Art and Technology in Modern Life’) was held in Paris: the French capital’s sixth and latest International Exposition, after fairs held in 1855, 1867, 1878, 1889, and 1900. Military aircraft, parachuting, sport flying, and even model-airplane building – every genre of hobby, commercial, or military application – were all represented at the booths of the Palais de l'Air. Nothing in any previous universal exhibition had ever matched this dramatic architectural confrontation. It was finally decided that the world's fair would take as its theme the division that had grown up between the arts and technology. The French erected a special Pavillon du Tourisme, where the beauties of France could be admired without the distractions of industrial or artistic exhibits. Now the colonials were brought back and placed in isolated splendor on the Ile des Cygnes in the Seine. No one could mistake the brute confrontation between the Russian and German buildings. This was the familiar French 1001 Nights dreamland, the exotic Orient and darkest Africa made real by theme pavilions and dusky natives hawking wares in the quartier d'outre mer. Paintings by Brunet, sculpted panels on the outside of the structure, and several thematic stands inside the Canadian pavilion depicted aspects of Canadian culture. As he surveyed the exhibit of tribal masks from Gabon and the Ivory Coast, the official chronicler of the colonial exhibit, Marc Chadourne, has a vision of the message crying out from these wares: "I am black, but I am beautiful. Go to shop Search results prioritize 1 sponsor listings. [3], Fitting in the architectural master-plan of the master architect Jacques Gréber at the foot of the Eiffel Tower, and inspired by the shape of a grain elevator, the Canadian pavilion included Joseph-Émile Brunet's 28-foot sculpture of a buffalo (1937). A Exposición Internacional de París de 1937, baixo o lema Exposición Internacional das Artes e das Técnicas na vida moderna, foi a sexta celebrada nesta cidade desde que naceron en Londres, en 1851. The 1930s was still an era of romance with the airplane; and the exhibit planners took advantage of the public's fascination by arranging the pavilion to show, in every conceivable context, the place of flight in human civilization. Art could profit by advances in industry – the use of photography in portrait painting was the most often-cited example – and industry borrowed liberally from the arts to lend grace to utility. But for painters and sculptors, gold medals awarded at world's fairs never had the status comparable to awards from the annual salons. The exposition was first conceived as a follow-up to the Exposition des Arts Decoratifs Modernes of 1925. In the modern view, easel painting was elitist. First the superiors, then the equals of industrialists, artist had now fallen to the level of plaster molding manufacturers and furniture decorators. By early June of 1937, the Paris Exposition was already in progress. The workers pay no attention to me. After having first decided to demolish the old structure, they opted instead for camouflage. Some legislators thought the exposition should celebrate "Workers’ and Peasants’ Lives," in an attempt to heal the split between Paris and the provinces and to give an egalitarian cast to the exposition’s theme and purpose. Only thirty-four million visitors – half the attendance of the 1900 exposition – attended this elaborate ceremony of the unification of Arts and Technics. 148–68, http://www.bib.ub.edu/en/libraries/pavello-republica/expos/pavello-republica/, https://zabytek.pl/pl/obiekty/warszawa-willa-barbary-i-stanislawa-brukalskich, https://www.bauhaus100.de/en/past/people/students/margaretha-reichardt/, https://moscow.touristgems.com/attractions/5650-worker-and-kolkhoz-woman/, "Raumbild Paris 1937: Introduction, ten images, and English text", Exposition internationale de 1937 at the Médiathèque de l'Architecture et du Patrimoine, Exposition Internationale by Sylvain Ageorges, International Exposition of Arts and Technics in modern life, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposition_Internationale_des_Arts_et_Techniques_dans_la_Vie_Moderne&oldid=998439050, Articles with unsourced statements from April 2010, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2020, All articles with vague or ambiguous time, Vague or ambiguous time from February 2011, Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Exposition Internationale des Arts et des Techniques appliqués à la vie moderne, Polish modern architect Stanisław Brukalski won the bronze medal for, German textile designer, weaver and former, 27 July – World Championship Boxing Matches, 30 July – 10 August – The True Mystery of the Passion (before, Forty Two International Sporting Championships, Every Night: Visions of Fairyland on the Seine, This page was last edited on 5 January 2021, at 11:07. Here primitive artisanship thrived. The medals were distributed, and the conquering exhibitors of forty-four nations politely applauded each other during the closing ceremonies on November 2, 1937. Check with the merchant for stock availability. (ed.) Amidst the technological wonders and charming pavilions of artisanship, there lurked an unpleasant feeling of tension, suspicion, and hostility at the Exposition Internationale in 1937. But Le Corbusier himself was too uncompromisingly visionary for the exposition planning commissioners. Barret, Maurice. (By contrast, two years later, San Francisco would succeed in holding its Treasure Island exposition open for an additional year). 22 It is significant that, by the opening day ceremonies held on May 24, only the Russian and German pavilions were completely finished. All previous expositions had been international; but national rivalries were supposed to be subordinated to larger, "universal" concerns: the elevation of taste through the arts and the improvement of everyday life by science through industry. But would the fair ever open its gates to the public? Joseph Sapey-Triomphe - Series of four framed photographs 1930, universal exhibition of 1937 in Paris - Art Deco - Glass, Paper, Wood France Series of four old photographs depicting sculptures presented at the 1937 World Expo in Paris. At previous Parisian expositions, "Art" and "Technique" were always housed in separate pavilions or separate sections on the fairgrounds. Artists felt that the fine arts were more noble and refined products of the human spirit. No one came away from the Columbian exposition with the notion that the other states were provinces of Chicago. Here Pagano had the joy of working alongside five different artists and placing Italy's newest industrial material such as linoleum and Termolux (shatterproof plate glass) next to a sumptuous chandelier from Murano and amber marble. In this case, though, the unification meant a subordinate position for art. The title of the 1937 exposition breaks down the real meaning inherent in the earlier term "universal" into its component parts: the nationalism inherent in the competition for prestige, the fundamental duality between the arts and technics, and the transforming power of art and science. The misshapen conglomeration from the 19th century would be replaced by a triumph of art deco modernity, a perfect unity of artisanship and technology. Instead, the government announced in the Livre d'Or Officiel that it would integrate the exposition with "the overall plan of economic recovery and the struggle against unemployment."2. But it was a by-product, and not part of the official plan. And in 1906, Dutert’s Gallery of Machines (from the 1889 exposition) was destroyed to enhance the view towards Les Invalides. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. It attracted extra attention because the exposition took place during the Spanish Civil War. [17], Entrance to the Italian Pavilion (Colour reconstruction). At night, the pavilion was illuminated by floodlights. The French pavilion will not be ready in time for the inauguration. Upgrade to PRO. The muralists and sculptors who adorned the walls of the industrial galleries were the artists truly in phase with the official philosophy of the fair. Various shot of the French colonial section at the Exhibition of Paris in 1937. Warnod, André. The centerpiece of the Air Pavilion was a vast gallery reminiscent of an airplane hanger. The fairs of the earlier era and the event of 1937 are all "expositions" – shows of the products of human ingenuity, under the aegis of Peace and Progress – but the "universal" is gone from the name and nature of the newest fair. And Picasso's Guernica, on display in the Spanish pavilion, showed that painters were still capable of making powerful statements about the moral dimension of the contemporary world. Dezember 1888 in der spanischen Stadt Barcelona statt. Application to daily life is the highest measure of worth. By June of 1940, Paris would belong to the conquering Nazis. A total of 16,704 prizes had been distributed to participants. A praise of the industrial revolution t… Over thirty-one million people had attended the fair, and the final balance sheet showed a loss of 495,000,000 million francs. While the country indeed finds got back among the major world powers – challenged after economic crises, the Prussian invasion and the Paris Commune– the World’s Fair was an opportunity for the Republic to glorify both the french know-how and its colonial empire. This book argues for the importance of bringing women and gender more directly into the dynamic field of exposition studies. The tardiness of the French workers was a major embarrassment to the French, since, by the time of the opening ceremonies, the Russian, German, Belgian, Danish and Italian pavilions were complete and ready to receive visitors. The idiom of the new building would be modern, but not too much. The Russian and German Pavilions oppose each other at the 1937 Exposition (click the image for a lightbox view), Click HERE for a 1937 video of the scene above, Expanded and revised from World's Fair magazine, Volume VIII, Number 1,1988. Exotic People in Universal Exhibitions and World's Fairs (1851-1937), in: Human Zoos. It took place between 25 May and 25 November, centred upon the Trocadéro, just across the Seine from the Eiffel … Writers for the Parisian journals of 1937 regaled themselves with epithets for the unloved Trocadero: "a miserable amalgamation of crab, antelope, and turtle" –, "a vacuous idiot with a pair of asses ears!" Conceived during the victorious optimism of the 1920s, the Exposition Internationale of 1937 (the originally-planned opening was delayed for a year) was carried out in the anxious zeitgeist of the 1930s. 12-feb-2019 - Esplora la bacheca "Universal Expositions" di dadapolis su Pinterest. Exposition, Universal in 1867; Exposition; Plan of American Participation. Die Exposición Internacional de Barcelona von 1888 war eine Weltausstellung und fand zwischen dem 8. In spite of the obvious differences in style, there are some striking parallels between the two buildings. Paris World Expo 1937 --- Deutscher Pavillion bei Nacht II --- German Pavillion at night --- Pavillion allemand á nuit.jpg 1,153 × 1,678; 121 KB Paris World Expo 1937 --- Italian Pavillion at daytime --- Pavillion italien á jour.jpg 1,625 × 1,210; 297 KB Today, many buildings of the 1937 Exhibition are still standing in Paris. The Hall of Honour was the pavilion's most dramatic and evocative space. One newspaper ran the headline: "The exposition is late – as usual. Others wanted to see the artisan exalted, in an attempt to ennoble colonial craftsmen and to fix the status of art as a decorative auxiliary to social concerns. The ancient, bitter rivalry between the two nations, healed in 1855, damaged in 1889 (when England refused to participate in an exposition that celebrated revolution) and again in 1898 (the year of the Fashoda crisis, when English troops humiliated the French on the banks of the Nile), was now declared extinct. It attracted more than thirty-two million visitors. Workers are not always swayed by the fine words Peace and Progress. L'exposició es va dur a terme sota el tema d'«Arts i tècniques de la vida moderna». The mood of the 1937 exposition carried none of the buoyant optimism that prevailed in 1900. viamichelin.co.uk. On the opening day of the exhibition, only the German and the Soviet pavilions had been completed. Giuseppe Pagano was responsible for the overall co-ordination of the exhibits and was the first impact on entering the building, its large courtyard garden and its hall of honour. Una exposició universal és una exposició de gran envergadura celebrada des de la segona meitat del segle xix en localitzacions arreu del món. Though the attendance at the Art Deco fair was only a tenth of the number who visited the 1900 exposition universelle, France congratulated herself on having taken a decisive step in maintaining her leadership in cultural affairs. You will pass by the Palais de Tokyo, double building built for the Universal Exhibition of 1937. The philosophy was as congenial to fascist Italy as to democratic France or communist Russia. The wide, impersonal sweep of the colonnade conjures up for many a feeling of totalitarianism in modern guise: an updated imperial style that owes its vocabulary to the twentieth century but its imperial ambitions to Rome. In spite of these encouraging statistics, most observers counted the exposition as something less than an unqualified success. Speer's pavilion was culminated by a tall tower crowned with the symbols of the Nazi state: an eagle and the swastika. The 8m x 12 m work towered over the two-storey height space that occupied the top of the pavilion's tower, making it the centre piece of the pavilion's decorative and propaganda program. The preparation and construction of the exhibits were plagued by delay. The value of art and science derives from its social utility, the exposition planners announce at Paris 1937. [8] Hitler had desired to withdraw from participation, but his architect Albert Speer convinced him to participate after all, showing Hitler his plans for the German pavilion. This enormous and intricately detailed model showed the departure from the Gare du Nord in Paris (with much of the city, including Montmartre, rendered with almost photographic accuracy), the debarking from Dunkirk, the arrival at Dover, and the destination at Victoria Station in London. Exposition '37: la vie flamboyante des expositions (Paris, 1937). This return to the past by way of neoclassicism has been seen by some observers as a prime symbol of fascism in architecture. Both the Palais de Chaillot, housing the Musée de l'Homme,[1] and the Palais de Tokyo, which houses the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, were created for this exhibition that was officially sanctioned by the Bureau International des Expositions. But in other respects, the Chaillot Palace continues a tradition begun in 1900 with the construction of the Grand Palais. "17, Mural in Le Corbusier's Pavilion de l'Esprit Nouveau. Orientalism and the Reality Effect: Angkor at the Universal Expositions, 1867–1937 The organization of the world exhibition had placed the German and the Soviet pavilions directly across from each other. Close by the Railway Pavilion was one of the most dynamic displays of the entire exposition: the Palais de l'Air. F. Marcello, "Italians do it Better: Fascist Italy’s New Brand of Nationalism in the Art and Architecture of the Italian Pavilion, Paris 1937" in Rika Devos, Alexander Ortenberg, Vladimir Paperny eds.. Robinson, Sidney K., ‘'The Architecture of Alden B. Dow, Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne, Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (1937), Second International Aeronautic Exhibition. "Leçon et avertissement pour l'Exposition 1937," Arts et métiers graphiques, 1936, numéro 51. Marcello Piacentini was given the job of designing the pavilion exterior. Lacoste, R. ""Paris Exhibition of 1937," Great Britain and the East, July 15, 1937. At the ground level, a massively naked Teutonic trio stare at the Russian monument with grim determination.22. Each country did its best to show the world the superiority of the political and economic system that had produced the marvels on view in its national pavilions. The legacies of the Expo. Knowledge was the hoarded property of the nation that discovered and applied it. « I was then living in rue La Fontaine. The Universal Exposition of 1889 (Exposition Universelle de 1889) was a highly successful international exhibition and one of the few world's fairs to make a profit. In 1937, the Queen City of Expositions held court for the last time. Paris, France, Europe, and all nations of the earth seemed poised in the eye of a hurricane, between the winds of World War I and World War II. Official writing about the Regional Center is not the slightest bit condescending. Der Beschluss für die Expo wurde in einem Gesetz vom 6. It replaced the old Palais du Trocadéro built for the 1867 World’s Fair. The statue was meant to symbolize the union of workers and peasants.[8]. Both the right and the left wings of political life in the 1930s conspired to confine art and science to these subservient roles. Reclaiming women for the history of world fairs (1876-1937), it also seeks to introduce new voices into these studies, dialoguing across disciplinary and national historiographies. 1 Fernand Chapsal, Ministre du Commerce, introduction to Livre d'Or Officiel de l'Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (Paris, 1937), page 16, 3 Jacques Gréber, "La Leçon de l'Exposition de 1937," in L'Architecture d'Aujourd'hui, page 3, 4 Anonymous essay in Architectural Record, October, 1937, page 82, 5 Jean Loisy, "Le premier mai devait s’ouvrir l’Exposition," in L’insurgé, May 5, 1937, 6 François Robichon, "Vers une architecture d'exposition, 1925-1970," in Le livre des expositions universelles, 1851-1989 (Paris, 1983), page 237, 7 Quoted in Philippe Bouin and Christian-Philippe Chanut, Histoire Française des Foires et des Expositions Universelles (Paris: 1980), page 206, 10 See, for example, the charges and countercharges in Vie Ordinaire of April 29, 1937, and Le Journal de la Mame, May 15, 1937. [8], The architect of the Soviet pavilion was Boris Iofan. "19 Chadourne could not see that the "but" is a mountain over which the entire world would one day have to cross. Unfortunately, as Robichon notes, "The reconstruction of the Trocadero palace took place in total disorder. To alleviate the widespread and growing poverty among artists – a embarrassment to the city which prided itself as the home and center of fine art – the nation of France and the city of Paris commissioned 718 murals, and employed over 2,000 artists to decorate the pavilions. The idea was transferred to Paris, where the "Provinces" seemed to the French as the equivalent of states. Some enthusiasts talked of continuing the exposition into the next year; but the plan failed to win popular support. By being most emphatically themselves, writes André Liautey, the provinces, "serve a national cause." Idealist promotion of the belief in Peace and Progress, advancing national prestige, and contributing to a worldwide exchange of information – these were among the principal stated goals of the past universal expositions. Visualizza altre idee su Esposizione universale, Parigi, Vecchia parigi. One of the most successful manifestations of the goals of the exposition was the Railway Pavilion. 14 Rapport Julien Durand, given to the Commission of Finances, meeting of February 13, 1936, n.p. Indeed, Albert Speer, chief architect of the Third Reich, thought so, and his German pavilion at the 1937 exposition was carried out in a spirit quite close to that of the Chaillot Palace. The grand building was topped by Worker and Kolkhoz Woman, a large momentum-exerting statue, of a male worker and a female peasant, their hands together, thrusting a hammer and a sickle. In a spirit of cooperation, even the Ile de France – the province that includes Paris – participated with a structure that resembled the top part of one tower in the City Hall of Paris. The model showed Paris and London as sister cities, bound together by efficient and convenient means of transportation. "This great lesson in international cooperation will not be forgotten,"1 predicted Fernand Chapsal, the French Minister of Commerce, in the official public report on the exposition. From the outset, women participated not only as spectators, but also as artists, … The exposition coloniale had presented handiwork and crafts by the subject peoples of the French empire in a picturesque encampment out by the Chateau de Vincennes, for scrutiny and appreciation by the citizens of the governing nation. Foto cedida por el Museo Centro de Arte Reina Sofía. 8. 23 Architectural Record, October, 1937, page 8, Expenses: 789,700,000 francs (including supplements to original budget), Loss to Government: 495,000,000 francs (Figures vary according to different reports), Pierre Mortier, Directeur de la Propagande, Jacques Gréber, Architecte en Chef de l'Exposition. There was considerable British criticism that the result was unrepresentative of Britain and compared poorly to the other pavilions' projections of national strength. 12 Quoted in the Architectural Record, October, 1937, page 81. But there was a subtle price attached to this patronage: modern painting and sculpture at the Exposition Internationale were reduced to the status of architectural embellishment. Government support for the murals at the exposition was, as we have seen, part of the official effort to combat unemployment. Propaganda continued the tradition of national displays at all previous world's fairs. The Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (International Exposition of Art and Technology in Modern Life) was held from 25 May to 25 November 1937 in Paris, France. "4 Jean Loisy, writing in L’insurgé, sneered that "the exposition has neither a leader nor a plan nor a program. The exposition was, in this respect, a kind of equivalent to the WPA program in the United States, where the government funded hundreds of mural projects in an effort to sustain working artists. By 1935, the new exposition had a theme and a name. Even if France was losing her place in the first rank economic and political power, Paris could at least prevail in matters of taste. No longer the backbone of French agriculture and the textile trade, the provinces are now quaint outposts of Paris, useful and picturesque in their diversions from city life. Hitchcock, H.R., Jr. "Paris 1937: Foreign Pavilions," Architectural Forum, September, 1937. The Trocadero was the major legacy from the first exposition launched by the Third Republic. "L'exposition de Paris 1937," L'Illustration, June 5, 1937. World War One was scarcely two decades past. At the center of all the displays featuring the New Deal stood a huge relief map of the Capitol, where all visitors could admire the city planners' wisdom and foresight when they envisioned the political centerpoint the United States. Science is valued, not as an independent exploration of the unknown, but as a vehicle for social amelioration.
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